Lego Branding Community Essay Example for Free

Lego Branding Community Essay Online communities are becoming â€Å"places† of belonging, information, and emotional support that people cannot do without. These social groups have a real existence for their participants, and thus have consequential effects on many aspects of behaviour. This article examines collective value creation and empowerment in an online brand community. It presents the main features of an online brand community, the process of value co-creation, and motivators for participating in online brand communities. These key factors jointly characterize collective value creation and empowerment. This netnographic study focuses on an online brand community called BrickBuilders, which is a meeting place for LEGO builders in Finland. BrickBuilders’ members feel a sense of belonging, they share similar motivations, and they create value together. Introduction A brand community can be formed by any group of people who share a common interest in a specific brand and who create a parallel social universe rife with its own myths, values, rituals, vocabulary, and hierarchy (Muniz and O’Guinn, 2001; Cova and Pace, 2006). Brand communities become more than a place. They become a common understanding of a shared identity, which can be found in both face-to-face interactions and in cyberspace (Muniz and O’Guinn, 2001). Analysts no longer question whether the concept of community should have a place in the domain of marketing (Cova and Pace, 2006). However, the concepts of brand community and online brand community are relatively new and have yet to find their place in the academic world. Traditionally, companies produced products relatively independently. Today, consumers and other stakeholders can create value more collectively. The purpose of this article is to describe and analyze collective value creation and empowerment in an online brand community. Main Features of Online Brand Communities Muniz and O’Guinn (2001) used three constructs to identify the distinguishing features of brand communities. First, a sense of belonging is a connection that members feel toward one another and the collective sense of difference from others outside of the community. The second feature is the presence of shared rituals and traditions that surround the brand. Rituals and traditions perpetuate the community’s shared history, culture, and consciousness. Traditions include certain behavioural norms and values. The third feature is a sense of moral responsibility, which is a felt sense of duty or obligation to the community. The sense of moral responsibility is what produces collective action. Heinonen and Halonen (2007) have identified motivators for online brand community activities. Members want to belong to something, build and strengthen their identities, get feedback from others, and create something new. The Process of Collective Value Creation Schau and colleagues (2009) have identified the process of value co-creation in online brand communities. The process consists of four thematic practices, which are social networking, impression management, community engagement, and brand use. Social networking is a practice that focuses on creating, enhancing, and sustaining ties among brand community members. These include welcoming, empathizing, and governing. These practices operate primarily in the intangible domain of the emotions and reinforce the social or moral bonds within the community. Impression management includes evangelizing and justifying. Online brand community members act as altruistic emissaries and ambassadors of good will. Members devote time and effort to the brand, share the news of the brand, and inspire others to participate in the community. Community-engagement practices are those that reinforce members’ escalating engagement with the brand community. These include staking, milestoning, badging, and documenting. Staking, milestoning, and badging mean that community members bring out brand experiences and proclaim openly that they are fans of a particular brand. Documenting occurs when brand community members construct a narrative of their brand experiences. Brand-use practices are specifically related to improved or enhanced use of the focal brand. These include grooming, customizing, and commoditizing. Grooming means that members share, for example, homemade tools and advice. Customizing means modifying existing ideas and discovering new ideas, which result in customized products. Commoditizing means that members rant or chastise some products, but at the same time, they have new ideas on how those products could be developed. Synthesis of the Theoretical Framework The main features of online brand communities, value co-creation, and motivators for participating in online brand communities (Heinonen and Halonen, 2007; Kozinets, 2010; Muniz and O’Guinn, 2001; Schau et al., 2009) are the key factors that jointly – realized in various combinations – characterize collective value creation and empowerment in an online brand community. The collective value creation and empowerment in the online brand community may occur when its members have a sense of belonging, they create value together, and they have similar motives. The collective value creation and empowerment of the online brand community allows mutual interaction between the online brand community and the company as well as other stakeholders. Companies have an opportunity to communicate with consumers and influence their opinions (Kozinets, 2010) and vice-versa. We have moved away from one-way transactions to a relationship-based interaction model that emphasizes consumers’ and other stakeholders’ roles in networks and communities.

Genetically Modified Foods Cause Autism Essay -- GMOs Essays

Question: Through the use of genetically modified foods, are humans becoming more prone to abnormalities? Introduction I have chosen to do my Life Science research project on genetically modified food as it is a topic that interests me. I have formulated a research question which is â€Å"Through the use of genetically modified foods, are humans becoming more prone to abnormalities?† Genetically engineered organisms (GMO) are becoming so advanced and a large variety of food that we eat has been genetically modified, such as maize, cotton, potatoes, wheat, sugarcane, strawberry, and soya. (Appel, 2008) With the increased advancement of GMO, many people are unaware of the complications that can occur. In my project I will be researching whether or not GMO are an addition to the cause of cancer and autism, but first in order for us to understand the effects of genetically modified organisms, we need to gain an in depth knowledge of the basis of genetics. DNA and Chromosomes Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a â€Å"hereditary material in humans and many other organisms† (Education, 2014). DNA is found in the nucleus of the cell. DNA forms an important part of the chromosome. DNA is a molecule that contains all the genetic information to make up an organism. DNA is a double helix structure made up of deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate and a nitrogenous base, there are four nitrogenous bases, Adenine, Thymine, Guanine and cytosine. Base pairing is specific. DNA carries genetic information in each cell, DNA can also replicate itself, so that the genetic code is passed on to each daughter cell that is formed during mitosis. â€Å"A chromosome is a thread-like structure of nucleic acids and proteins that are formed in living cells† (Anon., 2014).... ...3 Feburary 2014]. University of Nebraska , 2001. Ag Biosafety. [Online] Available at: http://agbiosafety.unl.edu/education/summary.htm [Accessed 16 March 2014]. University of Nebraska, 2005. Ag Biosafety. [Online] Available at: http://agbiosafety.unl.edu/basic_genetics.shtml [Accessed 03 Feburary 2014]. Unknown, 2011. Siyabonga Africa. [Online] Available at: http://www.krugerpark.co.za/krugerpark-times-2-6-genetically-modified-foods-19358.html [Accessed 01 May 2014]. Walia, A., 2013. Collective Evolution. [Online] Available at: http://www.collective-evolution.com/2013/05/10/new-study-links-monsantos-roundup-to-autism-parkinsons-and-alzheimers/ [Accessed 20 February 2014]. Wang, P., 2013. Autism Speaks. [Online] Available at: http://www.autismspeaks.org/blog/2013/10/11/are-children-born-autism-or-does-it-develop-later [Accessed 05 May 2014].

Falsafah Pendidikan

Integration of ICT in Education: Pedagogical Issues Dr. Anjali Khirwadkar Center of Advanced Study in Education Faculty of Education The M. S. University of Baroda India. Abstract The progress of any country depends upon the quality of education offered and its practices. Indian education was well known for its Gurukul system of education in the Vedic age. Education in India has undergone various phases and stages of development starting in the Vedic age to the post-independent period.At all stages of development there was a concern for bringing in quality education reflecting on the practical aspects in education. The great Indian thinkers had emphasized on developing the inner potential of individuals by reflecting on unique potential of individuals. Getting educated is solely dependent upon the individual teacher’s role to set conditions and generate environments for learning.The recent curriculum framework 2005 as proposed by NCERT (National Council of Educational Research and Training), India focuses on the issues of; Connecting knowledge to life outside Shifting from rote learning to constructing knowledge Providing a wide range experiences for the overall development of a child Bringing flexibility in the examinations The recent developments in technology have changed the world outside the classroom; it is more eye-catching and interesting for a student then the classroom setting. As a result, students find classroom instructions as dull and devoid of life and do not interest them for learning.The information technology has made learner WWW-afflicted. This is because technological developments have brought developments in two ways: First, by enhancing human capabilities by helping people to participate actively in social, 85 economic, and political life in a society at large. Second, by giving advantage to technological innovation as a means for human development due to economic progress and increased productivity. The power of information is such that almost all decisions made in different sectors like science, technology, economics, and business development will be based on information that has been generated electronically.Information has become a key asset of the organization for its progress. Therefore, access to information is a key factor in the generation of wealth and there is a strong link between a nation’s level of development and its level of technological development. Educators and policymakers believe that information and communication technologies are of supreme importance to the future of education and, in turn, for the country at large. As ICT is becoming an integral element for educational reforms and innovations at secondary schools, this situation calls for an enhancement of pre-service education on ICT for prospective teachers.There is a growing importance for ICT within the school curriculum. Not only it is used to support teaching and learning within other curriculum subjects, but it is also a subject in its own right as a separate discipline. The major objective is that developing skills, knowledge, and understanding in the use of ICT prepares pupils to use such technologies in their everyday lives. ICT tools enable pupils to access, share, analyze, and present information gained from a variety of sources and in many different ways. The use of ICT provides opportunities for pupils to work both collaboratively and independently.As such, the role of ICT within the curriculum is not only to enhance the learning experiences of pupils but also to help them develop the skills essential to participate effectively in the world of affairs. It generates avenues for working in groups developing team spirit, cohesion, and social values. Here, a teacher plays a pivotal role in the process of teaching learning. Hence, knowledge of ICT and skills to use ICT in teaching/learning has gained enormous importance for today’s teachers. Teachers are expected to know to successfully int egrate ICT into his/her subject areas to make learning more meaningful.This knowledge development during pre-service training has gained much importance with the notion that exposure to ICT during this time is helpful in increasing student teachers’ willingness to integrate 86 technology with classroom teaching. This paper focuses on issues relating to ICT in education as a core component in pre-service teacher education and the different models to be adopted for its integration. Review of studies conducted in the area of attitude, anxiety, and efficacy of teachers and development of computer skills Pre-service teachers need to plan to use computers in their classrooms.Vision is needed to motivate and direct their teaching and learning with the help of technology and using related instructional methods. There are various strategies used to make teachers understand and implement the integration of ICT in various curricula. They should serve as a basis for understanding compute r operations and programming along with assisting pre- service teachers to learn computer concepts in developing a vision, value, and use of computers in learning. Many studies have been conducted on teachers’ attitude and their use of ICT skills.It has been found that teachers’ attitudes play an important role in the teaching learning process. It has generally been found that pre-service teachers have demonstrated their ability for integrating technology into their teaching, but do not have clarity about how far technology can be beneficial for students. They will probably avoid teaching with technology once the requirement for the demonstration lesson is over. Hence, a negative attitude about teaching with and about technology in a subject matter area could work against well-planned instruction in teacher preparation programs.While, on the other hand, those teacher candidates who believe in the potential and utility of technology in the classroom and continue facing many challenges become the models for student teachers to emulate. Many studies have been conducted with regard to the attitude of teachers towards use and interations of technology have revealed the importance of attitudes for learning to use technologies (Cox, Rhodes & Hall, 1988; Davidson & Ritchie, 1994; Hannaford, 1988; Kay, 1990).These findings were further supported by Bandalos & Benson, 1990; Dupagne & Krendl, 1992; Francis-Pelton & Pelton, 1996; Loyd & Gressard, 1984a; Mowrer-Popiel, Pollard, & Pollard, 1994; Office of Technology Assessment, 1995. ) Several studies have found that individuals' attitudes toward computers may improve as a result of well-planned instruction (Kluever, Lam, 87 Hoffman, Green & Swearingen, 1994; Madsen & Sebastiani, 1987; Woodrow, 1992). Like other individual characteristics that are hypothesized o play a role in the continued growth of technology proficiency, attitudes and beliefs can’t be easily taught and must be developed by an individ ual over a period of time. Another factor that is noted to have a profound effect on the student teacher's learning technology and its integration is computer anxiety. Computer anxiety, as defined by Rohmer and Simonson (1981), is â€Å"the mixture of fear, apprehension, and hope that people feel while planning to interact or while actually interacting with a computer† (p. 151).Research has shown that there is often a negative relationship between the amount of prior computing experience and the level of computer anxiety exhibited by individuals. Reed and Overbought (1993) and Hackney (1994) found significantly reduced levels of computer anxiety following instruction whereas Chu and Spires (1991) observed a significant reduction in computer anxiety for only the most anxious quartile of subjects. McKiernan et al. (1994) reported that some students experienced reduced levels of computer anxiety at the end of a computer training class while other students experienced continuing anxiety.The level of anxiety could be reduced with increased experience in using and working with computers and thereby succeeding in reaching goals. Over and above the attitude of teachers, self-efficacy is also an important aspect to consider. Researchers have indicated that although teachers may have positive attitudes toward technology (Duane & Kernel, 1992; Office of Technology Assessment, 1995), they may still not consider themselves qualified to teach with it or comfortable using it. If teachers are to integrate technology into their teaching, they must feel self-efficacious about using it (Decorum & Kingie, 1993; Remer et. l. , 1993; Office of Technology Assessment, 1995). Bandera (1986) defined perceived self-efficacy as â€Å"people's judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances. It is concerned not with the skills one has but with the judgments of what one can do with whatever skills one pos sesses† (p. 391). According to Bandura (1982), people acquire information about efficacy from four sources: performance attainments, vicarious experiences of observing the performances of others, 88 erbal persuasion, and physiological states from which people partly judge their capability, strength, and vulnerability (p. 126). This information would help an individual assess his/her performance and then generate self-appraisals of his/her ability. When the concept of computer-efficacy is applied to the domain of learning to use computers in teaching, hands-on computer experience becomes an important component in effective instruction at the pre-service level. Research has shown a high correlation between efficacy judgments and subsequent performance (Bandura & Adams, 1977; Bandura, Adams & Beyer, 1977; Schunk, 1981).This particular link between self-efficacy and subsequent actions is significant in developing an idea for a teacher who continues to learn to teach with technolog y apart from instruction in teacher preparation (Ashton, 1985). Self-efficacy was originally conceived as having a high domain-specific component rather than one with high generalizability (Lennings, 1994), and this has led to recent research interest in the area of computer self-efficacy (Delcourt & Kinzie, 1993; Ertmer, Evenbeck, Cennamo, & Lehman, 1994). Computer self-efficacy represents the essential elements of self-efficacy as applied to the domain of computer learning.Several studies have found the positive effects of instruction on computer self-efficacy (Ertmer, Evenbeck, Cennamo & Lehman, 1994; Gist, Schwoerer & Rosen, 1989; Russon, Josefowitz & Edmonds, 1994; Torkzdeh & Koufteros, 1994). There is little doubt that today's prospective teachers will be expected to teach with technology in the classrooms of tomorrow. However, the resources available to teachers in terms of hardware, software, networking, and professional development vary greatly at the school level. Hence, i t is imperative that teachers become directors of their own learning with regard to using information technologies in the classroom.Through learning to teach with technology, teacher preparation programs have a unique place at the beginning of this challenging process. The development of a pedagogically-based framework of constructs that are related to learning to use computers and an approach for its application in teacher preparation shows promise for meeting these challenges as discussed above. 89 Another challenge for pre-service education is finding classrooms where pre-service teachers could observe teacher educators using technology appropriately and to understand where and how to include technology in their lessons.The computer has moved from an object to be studied to a teaching and learning tool for teachers and students. Hence, teacher preparation programs could no longer rely on an introductory course. We can’t just bolt on the technology in teacher education curr iculum; we need to take proactive steps for its integration in teaching learning. Teacher education and technological competence should involve all aspects of the preparation of teachers, i. e. , introductory competencies, use of technology in methods classes, school placements, and student teaching.Pre-service teachers need to develop a vision from the very beginning of their careers for using computers in their classrooms. For this, student teachers must understand computer operations and programming–leading them to develop a vision of the value and use of computers in learning. Therefore, it is crucial that teacher preparation programs should develop the cognitive, social, and physical environments that will help teachers feel efficacious and in control of learning to teach with technology, a domain that is often overwhelming even for experienced teachers.Another challenge of preparing teachers to teach with technology is that as a result of knowledge generation, our knowl edge about computer technology is constantly changing. In addition to this factor, there are various other dimensions like attitude, motivation, computer anxiety, and computer self-efficacy which play an important role in developing skills and competencies among prospective teachers. Pedagogy is primarily associated with formal school education.There are significant differences between the two concepts of pedagogy and â€Å"webogogy†, especially in terms of independence/dependence of the learners, resources for learning, motivation, and the role of the teacher. The context of learning is significant because learning is contextually and situationally specific. The teacher’s role in web-based teaching has already been identified as being very different from the teacher’s role in formal education, with terms like facilitator referring to the person who is on-line and interacting with students in various ways. It may be the same person who produces the course materi als.Also, the on- 90 line teacher will need to arrange a range of activities in which he or she will engage students, and a range of roles that he or she will fulfill. In web-based teaching, the teacher would be engaged in preparation and organization of instructional materials based on the same kind of assumptions about learners that are held by textbook authors. The Internet provides a wide range of scope for integrating varied learning experiences and making learning holistic. All of the resources developed by an individual teacher could be shared in a web forum for further refining the lesson plans.The various skills and competencies to be developed on the part of student teachers would be: Surfing the Internet and locating useful information from the Internet for the development of lesson plans. Developing lessons plans incorporating student use of technology in the learning process. Evaluating and selecting appropriate software for a particular subject and per student needs. G enerating printed documents like student assignments, newsletters, communication, etc. utilizing a variety of applications software like word processing and desktop publishing.Managing student data ; using data management tools for efficiently managing learning. Using technology to gather, organize, and report information about student performance like Excel and Access for database management. Developing tools to evaluate technology-based student projects including multi-media, word processing, database, spreadsheet, PowerPoint, desktop publishing, and Internet/telecommunications. 91 Using the Internet to support professional development including locating professional organizations, communicating with other teachers electronically, and participating in on-line professional development workshops nd seminars. Developing assignments and project work for students; giving them broader and deeper knowledge in a field of study; developing critical thinking and infusing creativity among st udents. Computer Education at The Secondary Level Recognizing the growing importance of ICT in the education area, policy makers in the school education sector have taken proper care to integrate computer education at the school level. The Curriculum Guide and Syllabus for Information Technology in Schools developed by NCERT, India, has the following objectives for the secondary school level: 1.Selecting appropriate IT devices for a given task; making his/her own informed choice of browser and search engines; trouble-shooting for peripherals. 2. Identifying specific strengths and weaknesses of technology resources; demonstrating legal and ethical behavior regarding the use of technology and information. 3. Communicating to a variety of audiences using IT tools; using a variety of technology tools for data collection and analysis; using tools to present and publish information with interactive multi media features; using tools to make models and simulations; manipulating images. . Us ing on-line information resources for collaboration and communication; collaborating with others to build content-related knowledge bases. 5. Developing strategies to find relevant and appropriate electronic information sources. 6. Investigating technology-based options for lifelong learning; using productivity tools, communication tools and research skills. 92 IT competency standards at the end of Class X to be developed in students are: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Ability in and understanding of fundamental computer operations and concepts. Using a variety of programs to accomplish learning tasks.Exhibiting skills in the use of communication networks. Exhibiting skills in the selection and use of technology to gather, process, and analyze data and preparation of reports. The expectations from the school sector in terms of established student objectives and expected skills to be developed demonstrate the need to develop necessary knowledge and skills among teachers with positiv e attitudes and the right inclination. Techno-Pedagogy a Skill The aim of teacher education is to develop skills and appropriate knowledge among teacher trainees for using and integrating the correct technology in an appropriate manner.Every teacher should know how to use technology, pedagogy and subject area content effectively in their daily classroom teaching. It is clear that merely introducing technology to the educational process is not enough. One must ensure technological integration since technology by itself will not lead to change. Rather, it is the way in which teachers integrate technology that has the potential to bring change in the education process. Hence, attitude and self-efficacy towards technology play an important role.For teachers to become fluent in the usage of educational technology means going beyond mere competence with the latest tools to developing an understanding of the complex web of relationships among users, technologies, practices, and tools. Teac hers must understand their role in technologically-oriented classrooms. Thus, knowledge about technology is important in itself, but not as a separate and unrelated body of knowledge divorced from the context of teaching–it is not only about what technology can do, but perhaps what technology can do for them as teachers. 3 In techno-pedagogy, there are three areas of knowledge, namely: content, pedagogy, and technology. Content (C) is the subject matter that is to be taught. Technology (T) encompasses modern technologies such as computer, Internet, digital video and commonplace technologies including overhead projectors, blackboards, and books. Pedagogy (P) describes the collected practices, processes, strategies, procedures, and methods of teaching and learning. It also includes knowledge about the aims of instruction, assessment, and student learning.Speaking truthfully, technology integration entails the understanding and negotiating of the relationships among the aforemen tioned three components. Good teaching is not simply adding technology to the existing teaching and content domain. Rather, the introduction of technology causes the representation of new concepts and requires developing sensitivity to the dynamic, transactional relationship between all three components suggested by the TPCK framework. (Koehler, M. J. and Mishap, P. 2005) Technological Content Knowledge C P Pedagogical Content Technological, Pedagogical knowledge (TPCK)T Technological Pedagogical Knowledge Depending upon the nature of content, scope of content, and level of students, appropriate technology integration must be sought. Technology as an aid enhances the process of learning and helps in achieving higher level objectives. 94 Approaches to ICT integration in Teacher Education Use of ICT within teacher training programs around the world is being approached in a number of different ways with varying degrees of success. These approaches were subsequently described, refined a nd merged into following approaches: 1.ICT skills development approach: Here importance is given to providing training in use of ICT in general. Student teachers are expected to be skilled users of ICT for their daily activities. Knowledge about various software, hardware and their use in educational process is provided. 2. ICT pedagogy approach: Emphasis is on integrating ICT skills in a respective subject. Drawing on the principles of constructivism, pre-service teachers design lessons and activities that center on the use of ICT tools that will foster the attainment of learning outcomes.This approach is useful to the extent that the skills enhance ICT literacy skills and the underlying pedagogy allows students to further develop and maintain these skills in the context of designing classroombased resources. 3. Subject-specific approach: Here ICT is embedded into one’s own subject area. By this method, teachers/subject experts are not only exposing students to new and innov ative ways of learning but are providing them with a practical understanding of what learning and teaching with ICT looks and feels like.In this way, ICT is not an ‘add on' but an integral tool that is accessed by teachers and students across a wide range of the curricula. 4. Practice driven approach: Here emphasis is on providing exposure to the use of ICT in practical aspects of teacher training. Focus is on developing lessons and assignments. Using ICT and implementing it in their work experience at various levels provides students an opportunity to assess the facilities available at their school and effectively use their own skills. Thus, ICT in teacher training can take many forms. Teachers can be trained to learn how to use ICT tools.ICT can be used as a core or a complementary means to the teacher 95 training process (Collis & Jung, 2003). The various ways in which ICT teacher training efforts could be classified into four categories are shown below in Figure 1. ICT AS PART OF CONTENT ICT AS A CORE COMPONENT IN TEACHER EDUCATION AND ITS APPLICATION ICT AS CORE CONTENT ICT AS FACILITATOR ICT AS CORE DELIVERY From the above suggested approaches, regarding ICT as a core component at the preservice level, integration of all approaches would help in developing proper attributes among prospective teachers.There should be joint efforts of educators and prospective teachers in implementing and sharpening ICT skills. Whatever approach is followed in educational institutions to develop knowledge about ICT, it has inherent limitations. Coupled with other reasons, we are not making student teachers fully confident in using ICT in their daily classroom activities. As reported by Larose F. in their study, the level of computer literacy of the teaching staff is satisfactory but there is little transfer of these competencies to teaching practices (Larose F. et al. 1999). Efforts are required on the part of teachers to make use of the available facilities for the best use in teaching /learning. ICT in Education Course Scenario at the Pre-Service Level The syllabi for ICT in education courses offered by some of the universities in India were analyzed in terms of the objective of the course, weight given to theory and practice, and other syllabus components. The Curriculum Guide and Syllabus for Information Technology in Schools developed by NCERT, India, has the following expectations 96 bout basic competencies of teachers to achieve the objectives of ICT education at the secondary level: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Understanding the role of technology in change and the implications of technology-mediated changes for education. Creating interest in learning among students through unique utilities like animation, simulation, the Internet, etc. Demonstrating a sound understanding of basic IT concepts and operations. Planning and designing effective learning environments with necessary technology support. Making the best use of technology-enhanced lessons to enrich student learning.Adopting assessment strategies to evaluate (a) student competencies in IT skills and (b) student learning in the new environment. Using technology to enhance our own creativity and professional practices. Demonstrating understanding of social, ethical, legal, and human issues surrounding the use of technology in schools. Fashioning a climate of values that encourage questioning, exploration, problemsolving, decision-making, and group co-operation. Striving for education to emerge from its disciplinary narrowness. Identifying useful learning material from various sources.The teacher has to take an active part in developing his own checklist for evaluation of learning materials and use it in the context of (a) the learner profile, (b) the learning environment, and (c) the technical strength of the computer laboratory of the school. Moreover, the tasks of the teacher are: 1. Design oneâ₠¬â„¢s own checklist. 2. Review software to be procured or on the World Wide Web 3. Report his/her assessment of courseware to the principal so a purchase decision can be made. 97 ICT is introduced in secondary teacher training courses at various levels as a compulsory subject or a special field subject.Sometimes, it is also introduced as one of the subjects to be studied under a course titled ‘Educational Technology’. Various objectives/rationales for introducing the course are as follows: 1. Understanding the scope and importance of ICT in contemporary society. 2. Developing effective perspectives and attitude towards emerging technologies. 3. Developing skills in handling, maintaining and protecting different types of hardware and equipment in the institutions of learning. 4. Acquiring a theoretical basis of ICT and to develop an awareness about recent developments in the area of ICT. 5. Acquiring adequate knowledge bout the fundamentals of computers and operating sys tems. 6. Acquiring the necessary skills of handling software packages for the purpose of education in the institutions of learning. 7. Acquiring knowledge about new Internet technologies and their place in the field of education. Regarding the weight given to the subject, different approaches are followed. Overall the weight given to theory and practice is 60/40 (60% for theory and 40% for practice). Broadly the content areas regarding theory/practice include: a. Introduction to Computers b. Introduction to Operating Systems c. Application of Computers in Teaching d.Functions of Computers – Knowledge of M. S. Office and other related packages and Computer languages e. Application of computers in Education f. New Trends and Techniques in Computer education (EDUSAT etc. ) g. Knowledge of Internet, World Wide Web, etc. 98 In the majority of teacher education institutions, the syllabi exhibit less weight to practical than theoretical aspects. Since the nature of ICT subjects is m ore practical and application-oriented, there needs to be more practical than theoretical input. This aspect seems to be neglected in designing and framing curricular objectives.The present approach for ICT integration is dismal as an â€Å"add on† approach for ICT course is adopted : ICT basics are taught to teacher trainers focusing on technical issues, but little emphasis is given to the pedagogical aspects Educational technology courses are taught in a rather traditional way and show little evidence of using new technology to support instructional innovations Students don’t know how to use new technology in their classroom instruction when they go to schools Technology input is not integrated in the curriculum courses, especially method courses.These are certain basic problems associated with the integration aspects of technology. These are major hurdles in the integration of ICT in the teaching/learning process. This scenario shows that the objectives of introduci ng ICT at the pre-service level are developing technological know-how and awareness regarding various other technologies and software packages. Further, the time spent for practical sessions is less, as more time is spent for theory sessions. The total approach of introducing ICT at the pre-service level is not very serious.It is very clear that student teachers will not get much scope in order to integrate ICT in curriculum or the teaching/learning process. In teacher training programs at the secondary level, the ICT education scenario is struggling with the following problems: †¢ †¢ Only at the awareness development level are objectives being achieved, but higher order thinking skills regarding the use of ICT tend not to be occurring. Technology, pedagogy and content area integration is a rare feature. components are dealt with separately which creates confusion for students. All 99 †¢There is a serious discrepancy among syllabi of teacher training institutions and secondary schools. Syllabi at various institutions are not on a par with school level curriculum. †¢ Time duration of the courses related to ICT education is too short to develop knowledge and necessary skills among students to achieve higher order thinking skills. †¢ †¢ †¢ There is a lack of availability of proper infrastructural facilities at most of the institutions. There is a mismatch between available hardware and software to develop required learning resources. Support from technical taff for maintenance is dismal. The objective at the pre-service level is not to prepare technocrats, but to develop technopedagogues. Teachers should be in a position to integrate technology into teaching / learning as well as develop the art and skill of â€Å"webogogy† (i. e. , to make use of Internet technology, exploring it, accessing information from it to use in teaching learning, etc. ). So, objectives must be set at the attainment of application and skill level s rather than just at the knowledge and understanding levels. The professional development of teachers needs to be given importance.There must be congruence between the school curriculum and teacher training curriculum at the secondary level. Otherwise, teachers are not ready to utilize their knowledge to effectively design teaching/learning processes, project work, and assignments. In addition to offering ICT as a compulsory and special course, integrated approaches need to be studied along with methods courses. This will help student teachers to develop the concept of ‘techno pedagogy’ to a greater extent. Thus, management of change in teacher education is a complex and demanding task involving comprehension, concern, caution, and contemplation.Planners and administrators of teacher education have to provide academic leadership to prepare reflective teachers who can manage the educational system efficiently at various stages of education at the pre-primary, primary, e lementary, secondary, and higher secondary levels. Effective change in schools is possible only when there are corresponding changes in the management of teacher education programs. 100 References: Ashton, P. (1985). Motivation and the teacher's sense of efficacy. In C. Ames, & R. Ames (Eds. ), Research on motivation in education, 2 ,141-171.Orlando, FL: Academic Press Inc. Bandalos, D. and Benson, J. (1990). â€Å"Testing the factor structure invariance of a computer attitude scale over two grouping conditions†, Educational Psychology Measurement, 50,49-60. Bandura, A. (1982). â€Å"Self-efficacy mechanisms in human agency. 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(1988) The use of Computer Assisted Learning in primary schools: some factors affecting the uptake. Computers and Education, 12(1), 173-178. Davidson, G. V. and Ritchie, S. D. (1994). How do attitudes of parents, teachers, and students affect the integration of technology into schools? : A case study. Presented at the National Convention of the Association for the Educational Communications and 101 Technology 16th Nashville, TN,(Eric Document Reproduction Service No. ED. 373 710) Delcourt, M. A. B & Kinzie, M. B. (1993). Computer Technologies In Teacher Education: The Measurement Of Attitudes And Self-Efficacy. † Journal Of Research And Development In Education. 27 (1). 35-41. Dupange,M. and Krendl,K. A. (1992). Teachers’ attitude towards computers: A review of literature, Journal of Research On Computing in Education,24,3,420-429. Ertmer, P. A. and Newby, T. J. (1993). Behaviorism, cognitivim, constructivism: comparing critical features from an instructional design perspective, Performance Improvement Quarterly, 6(4),50-72. Ertmer, P. A. , Evenbeck, E. , Cennamo, K. S. , and Lehman, J. D. (1994).Enhancing selfefficacy for computer technologies through the use of positive classroom experiences. Educational Technology Research and Development, 42, 45-62. Francis-Pelton, L. , & Pelton, T. W. (1996). Building attitudes: How a technology course affects preservice teachers' attitudes about technology. [ Online]: http://www. math. byu. edu/~lfrancis/tim's-page/attitudesite. html Gist, M. E. , Schwoerer, C. , & Rosen, B (1989). Effects of alternative training methods on self-efficacy and performance in computer software training. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74 (6), 884-891.Hakkinen, P. (1994). Changes in computer anxiety in a required computer course. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 27(2), 141-153. Hannaford, M. E. (1988, March 24 & 25). Teacher attitudes toward computer use in the classroom. Paper presented at the Annual Pacific Northwest Research and Evaluation Conference, Washington Educational Research Association, Seattle, WA. Key,R. H. (1990). Predicting student teacher commiment to the use of computers, Journal of Educational Computing Reasearch, 6, 299-309. 102 Kluever, R. C. , Lam, A. C. M. , Hoffman, E. R. , Green, K. E. Swearingen, D. L. (1994). The computer attitude scale: Assessing changes in teachers' attitudes towards computers. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 11(3), 251-261. Koehler,M. J. , Mishra,P. (2005). What Happens When Teachers Design Educational Technology? The Development of Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge, J. Educational Computing Research, 32(2) 131-152. Kohler M. J. and Mishra P. (2004). Teachers learning technology by design, Journal of computing in teacher education, 21,3. .Larose F. , David R. ,Dirand J ,. Karsenti T, Grenon V. ,. Lafrance S & Cantin J. 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Risk Management Processes In Banking Activities Finance Essay - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 6 Words: 1944 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Finance Essay Type Argumentative essay Did you like this example? Recent years have witnessed an increasing incidence of significant losses in the banking sector. Many well performing banks have suddenly declared large losses on account of crystallisation of various risks like credit, exposures, assumed interest rate, positions and exposures in derivatives that could have been taken to hedge balance sheet risks (Honohan, 2008, p 15). The subprime crises of 2008 and the subsequent credit, financial and economic crises revealed the importance of the need to adopt carefully planned risk management processes in banking activities (Honohan, 2008, p 15) Banks assumed numerous financial risks in the course of their routine financing and day to day activity. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Risk Management Processes In Banking Activities Finance Essay" essay for you Create order With risk exposures in the banking industry being extensive and multi-dimensional, the selection and adoption of appropriate risk management processes is a complex and challenging task (Santomero, 1997, p 2). Risk management processes are further compounded by the fact that whilst bankers are aware of various risks involved in their regular financing activities and can take action to reduce or protect some of the activities that are prone to risk, there are some activities where the inherent risk has to be absorbed at the level of the banks (Santomero, 1997, p 2). These include activities where the imbedded risk may be too complex in nature to communicate to third parties (Honohan, 2008, p 15). The second group of activities include proprietary positions that need to be acknowledged and accepted on account of their risks and their expected returns. The credit risk in lending activity is a clear case where risk needs to be absorbed monitored and managed by institutions (Honohan, 2008, p 15). 1.2. Definition of Problem The development of the subprime crises and the following global financial and economic crises has resulted in enormous debate and discussion, the intensification of local and global regulatory activity in the banking sector and the conscious up gradation of risk management processes by various banks. With the memories of the crises continuing to be strong, banking customers continue to be apprehensive about the risk management processes adopted by their banks and the safety of their money in the hands of banks. 1.3. Aims and Objectives The proposed research project aims to examine the various measures adopted by banks to upgrade their risk management systems and processes. The aims and objectives of the proposal are elaborated as follows. To determine the various risks faced by banks in the course of their lending and financing activities. To determine the risk management processes adopted by banks prior to the banking crises of 2008. To examine the new risk management processes adopted by banks in the last two years in order to mitigate risks involved in bank financing activities. To determine the effectiveness of such measures and the extent to which they have improved the risk management processes of bank finance activities. 1.4. Benefits The proposed research project aims to examine an important area in banking activity. Most bank depositors continue to be worried about the safety of their bank deposits and the risk management processes adopted by their banks in the wake of the financial crises. The findings of the research project will throw important light on the actual steps taken by banks to mitigate the risks of their bank financing activities and help bank depositors as well as students of finance and the larger society by revealing the actual improvements in risk management processes and their effectiveness in safeguarding banking operations and depositor wealth. Commercial banks are essentially engaged in the risk business. They assume different types of financial risks in the course of providing financial services to their clients. Market participants use the services of these banks because of their abilities in providing transaction efficiency, funding capability and market knowledge. Acting generally as principals in such transactions, they use their resources to facilitate transactions and absorb risks. Angelopoulos*** Whilst banking firms do engage in activities like underwriting, investment and trust management and packaging, securitising and distribution of loans, which do not have implications for their balance sheets, the substantial majority of their risks stem from on-balance sheet businesses (Santomero, 1997, p 2). The risks that are involved in the basic banking activity of lending and borrowing are not totally borne by banks (Santomero, 1997, p 3). Banking institutions often mitigate or eliminate financial risks that are associated with transactions through the assumption of appropriate business practices or by shifting risks to other parties through appropriate use of pricing and product design methods (Santomero, 1997, p 3). Financial experts state that such risks can be, from the perspectives of bank managements, be segregated into three types: Risks that can be reduced by appropriate business practices. Risks that can be reduced by transfer to other participants. Risks that have to be actively managed at the level of banks (Santomero, 1997, p 3). Banks use a number of practices to avoid or manage risks. These include standardisation of various banking processes to reduce inefficiencies on taking of wrong financial decisions, development of portfolios that are diversified across borrowers and reduce the impact of losses in specific sectors and processes to hold employees accountable for actions that increase the risks faced by banks (Pyle, 1997, p 1-2). Some risks on the other hand are transferred through the use of interest rate products like swaps, alteration in borrowing terms and buying or selling of financial claims to concentrate or diversify risks associated with specific client basis (Pyle, 1997, p 1-2). The risks involved in some activities or classes of assets however need to be absorbed at the bank level. These include activities or assets are too complex to communicate to others or credit risks that are integral to lending activity (Santomero, 1997, p 3). Managements of banking firms rely on various standard activities to manage such inherent risks. These include the establishment of standards and reports. The formulation of position limits, the development of investment strategies and the formulation of compensation and incentive contracts for bank employees (Santomero, 1997, p 4). Each of these processes is complex in nature. The setting of standards for example includes areas like categorisation of risk and formulation of standards for underwriting and review. Standardisation of financial reporting helps in understanding asset quality and risk posture. Position limits restrict risk taking to assets that meet specific quality standards (Santomero, 1997, p 4). Whilst the setting of such limits is an expensive and complex task, it helps in restricting the risks that can be assumed by individual employees and organisations. Investment strategies provide guidelines to bank managers in terms of concentrations in particular market areas, the degree of required exposure to asset-liabilities and the requirement for hedging against risks of particular types. Whilst such strategies help in passive risk avoidance, banks also provide managers with advice and guidance on different types of investment activity (Santomero, 1997, p 4). The risks assumed by banks in their normal financing activities include the following. Angelopoulos Market risk Credit risk Liquidity risk Counterparty risk Operational risk Legal risk Banks by and large adopt the same process of risk management, elaborated above for dealing with these different types of risks (Santomero, 1997, p 4). The aftermath of the financial crises has resulted in intense soul searching by banks and analysis of their risk management processes for each of these different types of risks, the assessme nt of their effectiveness, the analysis of their deficiencies and action to upgrade existing processes in various ways (Santomero, 1997, p 4). 3. Research Methodology The adoption of an appropriate research method is one of the most important components of a research proposal. The choice of an appropriate research method depends primarily upon the nature of the subject and the formulated research questions, as well as the resources and time available with the researcher (Bryman, 2004, p 9). Social research is shaped by two basic epistemologies, namely the positivist approach and the interpretivist approach (Bryman, 2004, p 16). Positivist epistemology is useful for research subjects that can be investigated with the adoption of scientific and quantifiable methods of investigation and analysis. Whilst much of social research, especially in areas of marketing and consumer opinion are conducted with the help of social research, they prove to be inappropriate and inadequate for research subjects that cannot be easily categorised and analysed in scientific and quantitative terms (Bryman, 2004, p 16). With humans essentially being unique and often irrational in their thoughts and actions, much of social research involves subjective issues and topics that are multi-dimensional, multi-layered and can be interpreted in various ways (Bryman, 2004, p 16). Such research subjects are best served by the application of interpretivist epistemologies and associated research methods (Bryman, 2004, p 16). The choice of research epistemology is also by and large causal in the adoption of appropriate research methods. Positivist epistemology is associated with quantitative methods of obtaining and analysing information, even as interpretivist epistemology is associated with qualitative research methods (Creswell, 2006, p 42). Whilst qualitative methods essentially make use of techniques like sampling, questionnaire based surveys and numerical and statistical analysis, qualitative methods involve obtaining information through direct and extensive interviews with respondents and the expert interpretation of the information obtained during such interviews (Creswell, 2006, p 42). Both quantitative and qualitative methods have their own merits and demerits and the skilled and astuteness of the researcher lies in making an appropriate and careful selection (Davies, 2007, p 29). The research subject taken up for investigation, whilst involved with banking, finance and management of risk is essentially too wide and complex to be analysed through purely quantitative means (Davies, 2007, p 29). Risk management processes are basically designed, implemented, assessed and monitored by individuals, who aim to achieve certain risk management objectives (Davies, 2007, p 29). With much of interpretation of various types of risks being influenced by a range of subjective and interpretative issues like economic conditions, risk profiles of specific sectors and profit objectives of individual banks, the research objective of the proposed dissertation will be best served through the adoption of qualitative methods (Davies, 2007, p 2 9). The formulation of research methods also involves the determination of the methods for obtaining information (Babbie, 2007, p 14). Information for research purposes is obtained from primary and secondary sources, secondary sources being the information available in the public domain through writings on the subject by uninvolved third parties and primary information comprising of information obtained directly from respondents involved in the matter under investigation (Babbie, 2007, p 14). With qualitative methods of research being proposed to be used for the dissertation, it is planned to obtain primary information to direct interviews with executives engaged in a risk management processes with three important banks (Cramer, 2003, p 58). Information will be obtained through the conduct of carefully planned interviews with chosen respondents on the risk management processes that were used by these banks before the financial crises, the implementation of new measures, the re asons behind selection of such measures and the impact of the new measures upon existing risk management processes (Cramer, 2003, p 58). Information from these direct interviews will help significantly in answering the previously elaborated research questions. 4. Ethics Care will be taken to adhere to all ethical norms of social research projects, including adherence to the principles of informed consent, absence of coercion, freedom to respond to questions and confidentiality of identity. All respondents shall be informed about the purposes of research. Care shall also be taken to ensure originality of research, acknowledgement of sources and elimination of plagiarism of all kinds. 5. Problems and Limitations The main problems in the conduct of the research project could arise from the availability and selection of appropriate respondents for qualitative interviews. The researcher proposes to use known contracts as well as family and friends to locate and persuade appropriate respondents to participate in direct interviews. Whilst this process could take some time, the researcher is confident of being able to obtain the agreement of appropriate respondents to participate in the research. The research will otherwise of course be limited by the expertise and knowledge of the researcher. 6. Time Plan